Insect pollination, a critical ecological process, pre-dates the emergence of angiosperms by nearly 300 million years, with fossil evidence indicating pollination interactions between insects and non-angiosperm seed plants during the Late Paleozoic. This re-view examines the symbiotic relationships between insects and gymnosperms in pre-angiosperm ecosystems, highlighting the complexity of these interactions. Fossil records suggest that the mutualistic relationships between insects and gymnosperms, which facilitated plant reproduction, were as intricate and diverse as the modern in-teractions between angiosperms and their pollinators, particularly bees. These early pollination systems likely involved specialized behaviors and plant adaptations, re-flecting a sophisticated evolutionary dynamic long before the advent of flowering plants.
The Anthropocene presents a dichotomy: while climate change and anthropogenic pressures threaten insect biodiversity and risk disrupting angiosperm reproduction, such upheaval may simultaneously generate opportunities for novel plant–insect in-teractions as ecological niches are vacated. Understanding the deep evolutionary his-tory of pollination offers critical insight into the mechanisms underlying the resilience and adaptability of these mutualisms. The evolutionary trajectory of bees—originating from predatory wasps, diversifying alongside angiosperms, and reorganizing after mass extinctions—exemplifies this dynamic, demonstrating how pollination networks persist and reorganize under environmental stress and underscoring the enduring health, resilience, and adaptability of these essential ecological systems.